In 1948
Frank Wisner was appointed director of the Office of Special Projects. Soon afterwards it was renamed the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC). This became the espionage and counter-intelligence branch of the
Central Intelligence Agency. Wisner was told to create an organization that concentrated on "propaganda, economic warfare; preventive direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance groups, and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened countries of the free world."
Later that year Wisner established Mockingbird, a program to influence the domestic American media. Wisner recruited
Philip Graham (
Washington Post) to run the project within the industry. Graham himself recruited others who had worked for military intelligence during the war. This included
James Truitt, Russell Wiggins, Phil Geyelin, John Hayes and Alan Barth. Others like
Stewart Alsop,
Joseph Alsop and
James Reston, were recruited from within the
Georgetown Set. According to
Deborah Davis (
Katharine the Great): "By the early 1950s, Wisner 'owned' respected members of the New York Times, Newsweek, CBS and other communications vehicles."
In 1951
Allen W. Dulles persuaded
Cord Meyer to join the CIA. However, there is evidence that he was recruited several years earlier and had been spying on the liberal organizations he had been a member of in the later 1940s. According to
Deborah Davis, Meyer became Mockingbird's "principal operative".
One of the most important journalists under the control of Operation Mockingbird was
Joseph Alsop, whose articles appeared in over 300 different newspapers. Other journalists willing to promote the views of the CIA included
Stewart Alsop (
New York Herald Tribune),
Ben Bradlee (
Newsweek),
James Reston (
New York Times),
C. D. Jackson (
Time Magazine),
Walter Pincus (
Washington Post), William C. Baggs (
Miami News), Herb Gold (
Miami News) and Charles Bartlett (
Chattanooga Times). According to
Nina Burleigh (
A Very Private Woman) these journalists sometimes wrote articles that were commissioned by
Frank Wisner. The CIA also provided them with classified information to help them with their work.
After 1953 the network was overseen by
Allen W. Dulles, director of the
Central Intelligence Agency. By this time Operation Mockingbird had a major influence over 25 newspapers and wire agencies. These organizations were run by people with well-known right-wing views such as
William Paley (CBS),
Henry Luce (
Time Magazine and
Life Magazine),
Arthur Hays Sulzberger (
New York Times),
Alfred Friendly (managing editor of the
Washington Post), Jerry O'Leary (
Washington Star),
Hal Hendrix (
Miami News),
Barry Bingham Sr., (
Louisville Courier-Journal), James Copley (Copley News Services) and Joseph Harrison (
Christian Science Monitor).
The
Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) was funded by siphoning of funds intended for the
Marshall Plan. Some of this money was used to bribe journalists and publishers.
Frank Wisner was constantly looked for ways to help convince the public of the dangers of communism. In 1954 Wisner arranged for the funding the Hollywood production of
Animal Farm, the animated allegory based on the book written by
George Orwell.
According to
Alex Constantine (
Mockingbird: The Subversion Of The Free Press By The CIA), in the 1950s, "some 3,000 salaried and contract CIA employees were eventually engaged in propaganda efforts". Wisner was also able to restrict newspapers from reporting about certain events. For example, the CIA plots to overthrow the governments of Iran and Guatemala.
Thomas Braden, head of the of International Organizations Division (IOD), played an important role in Operation Mockingbird. Many years later he revealed his role in these events: "If the director of CIA wanted to extend a present, say, to someone in Europe - a Labour leader - suppose he just thought, This man can use fifty thousand dollars, he's working well and doing a good job - he could hand it to him and never have to account to anybody... There was simply no limit to the money it could spend and no limit to the people it could hire and no limit to the activities it could decide were necessary to conduct the war - the secret war.... It was a multinational. Maybe it was one of the first. Journalists were a target, labor unions a particular target - that was one of the activities in which the communists spent the most money."
In August, 1952, the Office of Policy Coordination and the Office of Special Operations (the espionage division) were merged to form the Directorate of Plans (DPP).
Frank Wisner became head of this new organization and
Richard Helms became his chief of operations. Mockingbird was now the responsibility of the DPP.
J. Edgar Hoover became jealous of the CIA's growing power. He described the OPC as "Wisner's gang of weirdos" and began carrying out investigations into their past. It did not take him long to discover that some of them had been active in left-wing politics in the 1930s. This information was passed to who started making attacks on members of the OPC. Hoover also gave McCarthy details of an affair that
Frank Wisner had with Princess Caradja in
Romania during the war. Hoover, claimed that Caradja was a Soviet agent.
Joseph McCarthy also began accusing other senior members of the CIA as being security risks. McCarthy claimed that the CIA was a "sinkhole of communists" and claimed he intended to root out a hundred of them. One of his first targets was
Cord Meyer, who was still working for Operation Mockingbird. In August, 1953,
Richard Helms, Wisner's deputy at the OPC, told Meyer that
Joseph McCarthy had accused him of being a communist. The
Federal Bureau of Investigation added to the smear by announcing it was unwilling to give Meyer "security clearance". However, the FBI refused to explain what evidence they had against Meyer.
Allen W. Dulles and both came to his defence and refused to permit a FBI interrogation of Meyer.
Joseph McCarthy did not realise what he was taking on. Wisner unleashed Mockingbird on McCarthy.
Drew Pearson,
Joe Alsop,
Jack Anderson,
Walter Lippmann and
Ed Murrow all went into attack mode and McCarthy was permanently damaged by the press coverage orchestrated by Wisner.
Mockingbird was very active during the overthrow of
Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala. People like
Henry Luce was able to censor stories that appeared too sympathetic towards the plight of Arbenz.
Allen W. Dulles was even able to keep left-wing journalists from travelling to Guatemala. This including Sydney Gruson of the
New York Times.
Frank Wisner was also interested in influencing Hollywood. As
Hugh Wilford points out in
The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (2008): “Fortunately for the CIA, two factors predisposed the major Hollywood studios that dominated the industry to take a responsible position in the cultural Cold War. One was a strong tendency toward self-censorship, the result of many years' experience avoiding the commercially disastrous effects of giving offense to either domestic pressure groups like the American Legion or foreign audiences. The other was the fact that the men who ran the studios were intensely patriotic and anticommunist - they saw it as their duty to help their government defeat the Soviet threat."
Frank Wisner was helped by the fact that the
House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), chaired by
J. Parnell Thomas, was carrying out an investigation into the Hollywood Motion Picture Industry. The HUAC interviewed 41 people who were working in Hollywood. These people attended voluntarily and became known as "friendly witnesses". During their interviews they named nineteen people who they accused of holding left-wing views.
One of those named,
Bertolt Brecht, a playwright, gave evidence and then left for
East Germany. Ten others:
Herbert Biberman,
Lester Cole,
Albert Maltz,
Adrian Scott,
Samuel Ornitz,
Dalton Trumbo,
Edward Dmytryk,
Ring Lardner Jr.,
John Howard Lawson and
Alvah Bessie refused to answer any questions and were sent to prison and were blacklisted from the industry.
The
CIA and
FBI also provided right-wing television producer,
Vincent Harnett, with information about left-wing figures in the industry. In June 1950 Harnett published
Red Channels, a pamphlet listing the names of 151 writers, directors and performers who they claimed had been members of subversive organisations before the
Second World War but had not so far been blacklisted.
Lee J. Cobb was one of those actors who was originally blacklisted but eventually cooperated with the
HUAC: “When the facilities of the government of the United States are drawn on an individual it can be terrifying. The blacklist is just the opening gambit - being deprived of work. Your passport is confiscated. That's minor. But not being able to move without being tailed is something else. After a certain point it grows to implied as well as articulated threats, and people succumb. My wife did, and she was institutionalized. In 1953 the HCUA did a deal with me. I was pretty much worn down. I had no money. I couldn't borrow. I had the expenses of taking care of the children. Why am I subjecting my loved ones to this? If it's worth dying for, and I am just as idealistic as the next fellow. But I decided it wasn't worth dying for, and if this gesture was the way of getting out of the penitentiary I'd do it. I had to be employable again.”
According to
Frances Stonor Saunders, the author of
Who Paid the Piper? (2000),
Frank Wisner recruited several important figures for Operation Mockingbird. This included former OSS filmmaker
John Ford and studio bosses
Cecil B. DeMille (Paramount Pictures) and
Darryl Zanuck (Twentieth Century-Fox).
Another important figure in this group was Howard Hughes, the boss of RKO Pictures. As
Charles Higham points out in
Howard Hughes: The Secret Life (2004), this was also good for business: “Hughes’s crusade against Communism” was “exacerbated by his desire to have Hughes Aircraft profit from the Korean and any future anti-Soviet wars”. For example, in June 1950, General
Ira Eaker "signed an across-the-board agreement giving Hughes a monopoly in interceptors for the U.S. Air Force… despite the fact that it was in breach of the Sherman anti-monopolies act… By the end of 1950, the war had made Hughes even richer than before.”
Another important figure in this conspiracy was
C. D. Jackson. He had joined the
Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in 1943. The following year he was appointed Deputy Chief at the Psychological Warfare Division at
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). After the war, he became Managing Director of
Time-Life International. When it became clear that
Dwight D. Eisenhower stood a good chance of becoming president, the CIA arranged for Jackson to join his campaign. This involved Jackson writing speeches for Eisenhower. Jackson was rewarded in February 1953 by being appointed as Special Assistant to the President. This included the role of Eisenhower's liaison between the CIA and the Pentagon.
According to the
Eisenhower Presidential Library files in
Abilene,
Kansas, Jackson's "area responsibility was loosely defined as international affairs, cold war planning, and psychological warfare. His main function was the coordination of activities aimed at interpreting world situations to the best advantage of the United States and her allies and exploiting incidents which reflected negatively on the Soviet Union , Communist China and other enemies in the Cold War."
Jackson was also involved in Operation Mockingbird. This was revealed after the death of
C. D. Jackson. On December 15, 1971, Mrs. C.D. Jackson gave her husband’s papers to the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library. This included details that Jackson was in contact with a
CIA agent in Hollywood's
Paramount Studios. The agent is not named by Jackson but
Frances Stonor Saunders claims in
Who Paid the Piper? (2000) that it was
Carleton Alsop, a CIA agent employed by
Frank Wisner. There is no doubt that Alsop was one of the CIA agents working at Paramount. However,
Hugh Wilford argues in
The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (2008) that it was a senior executive at Paramount,
Lugi G. Laraschi, was the most important CIA figure at the studio. Laraschi was the head of foreign and domestic censorship at the studio, whose job was to “iron out any political, moral or religious problems”. Other studios, including
MGM and
RKO, had similar officers, and were probably CIA placements. In a private letter to
Sherman Adams, Jackson claims the role of these CIA placements was “to insert in their scripts and in their action the right ideas with the proper subtlety”.
Although the main objective of Operation Mockingbird was to influence the production of commercial films the
CIA also occasionally initiated film projects. The best documented instance of this concerns an animated version of
Animal Farm, a satirical allegory about
Stalinism by
George Orwell. The book was highly popular when it was published in 1945 and it was only natural that the studios should be interested in making a film of the book. The problem for the CIA was that Orwell was a socialist whose book attacked both communism and capitalism. Therefore, it was important to make a film that restricted it to a condemnation of
Joseph Stalin and the
Soviet Union.
In 1950 Wisner’s OPC arranged for
Joe Bryan to recruit anti-communist documentary-maker
Louis de Rochemont to produce a movie version of the tale. It was decided to get the film made in Britain to disguise CIA involvement in the project. Rochemont employed the British animation studio of husband and wife
John Halas and
Joy Batchelor to make the film. Most of the funding came from a CIA shell corporation, Touchstone.
E. Howard Hunt was one of those agents involved in the production of the film whose role was to remove the socialist elements in Orwell’s allegory.
One unnamed member of the OPC sent a letter to
John Halas called for the addition of scenes showing the other farms (that represented capitalist countries) in a more flattering light. The most important demand was to change the ending of
Animal Farm. The CIA did not like the scene where the pigs and dogs face a liberation-style uprising of the other animals. The letter included the following: “It is reasonable to expect that if Orwell were to write the book today, it would be considerably different and that the changes would tend to make it even more positively anti-Communist and possibly somewhat more favorable to the Western powers.”
One of the main concerns of the CIA was the portrayal of race-relations in Hollywood movies. It was argued that the left was using this issue to undermine the idea that America was a democracy based on equal rights. Letters from Jackson sent to the producers of films called for scenes showing African Americans mixing on equal terms with whites. One of Jackson’s proposals involved “planting black spectators in a crowd watching a golf game in the Martin and Lewis comedy The Caddy”.
In 1955
Graham Greene published
The Quiet American. The novel is set in
Vietnam and involves the relationship between Thomas Fowler and Alden Pyle. Fowler is a veteran British journalist in his fifties, who has been covering the war in Vietnam for over two years. Pyle, the “Quiet American” of the title, is officially an aid worker, but is really employed by the CIA. It is believed that the Pyle character is partly based on that of
Edward Lansdale.
Greene had worked for the British Secret Service during the
Second World War. Although a fairly successful novelist at the time, Greene was also employed by
The Times and
Le Figaro as a journalist. Between 1951 to 1954 spent a long period of time in Saigon. In 1953 Lansdale became a CIA advisor on special counter-guerrilla operations to French forces against the
Viet Minh.
While it is true that
Graham Greene admitted that he never had the "misfortune to meet" Lansdale, the two men did know a lot about each other. Lansdale recalls that in 1954 he had dinner with Peg and Tilman Durdin at the
Continental Hotel in
Saigon. Greene was also there having a meal with several French officers. Lansdale claims that after he and the Durdins were leaving, Greene said something in French to his companions and the men began booing him.
Lansdale definitely thought that Pyle was based on him. He told
Cecil B. Currey on 15th February, 1984: "Pyle was close to Trinh Minh Thé, the guerrilla leader, and also had a dog that went with him everywhere - and I was the only American close to Trinh Minh Thé and my poodle Pierre went everything with me."
In the book Pyle is sent to
Vietnam by his government, ostensibly as a member of the American Economic Mission, but that assignment was only a cover for his real role as a
CIA agent. According to one critic "Pyle was the embodiment of well-meaning American-style politics, and he blundered through the intrigue, treachery, and confusion of Vietnamese politics, leaving a trail of blood and suffering behind him." As Fowler points out in the novel, Pyle was attempting to "win the East for Democracy". However, according to Fowler, what the people of Vietnam really wanted was "enough rice" to eat. What is more: "They don't want to be shot at. They want one day to be much the same as another. They don't want our white skins around telling them what they want."
When the book was published in the United States in 1956 it was condemned as anti-American. Pyle (Lansdale) is portrayed as someone whose belief in the justice of American foreign policy allows him to ignore the appalling consequences of his actions. It was criticized by
The New Yorker for portraying Americans as murderers.
The director, producer and screenwriter,
Joseph L. Mankiewicz was chosen to make the film of
The Quiet American. He visited Saigon in 1956 and was introduced to
Edward Lansdale, whose cover was working at the International Rescue Committee’s office. The most controversial scene in the book is the bombing of a Saigon square in 1952 by a Vietnamese associate of Lansdale’s, General
Trinh Minh Thé. In the novel, Greene suggests that Pyle/Lansdale, was behind the bombing. Lansdale suggested to Mankiewicz that the film should show that the bombing was “actually having been a Communist action”.
When he returned home Mankiewicz wrote to
John O’Daniel, the chairman of the
American Friends of Vietnam that he intended to completely change the anti-American attitude of Greene’s book. This included the casting of
Second World War hero,
Audie Murphy, as Alden Pyle.
In a letter that
Edward Lansdale wrote to
Ngo Dinh Diem he praised Mankiewicz’s treatment of the story as “an excellent change from Mr. Greene’s novel of despair” and “that it will help win more friends for you and Vietnam in many places in the world where it is shown."
As
Hugh Wilford pointed out: “It was a brilliantly devious maneuver of postmodern literary complexity: by helping to rewrite a story featuring a character reputedly based on himself, Lansdale had transformed an anti-American tract into a cinematic apology for U.S. policy - and his own actions-in Vietnam.”
Graham Greene was furious with Mankiewicz’s treatment ofhis novel. "Far was it from my mind, when I wrote The Quiet American that the book would become a source of spiritual profit to one of the most corrupt governments in Southeast Asia."
In 1955 President
Dwight Eisenhower established the 5412 Committee in order to keep a check on the CIA's covert activities. The committee (also called the Special Group) included the CIA director, the national security adviser, and the deputy secretaries at State and Defence and had the responsibility to decide whether covert actions were "proper" and in the national interest. It was also decided to include
Richard B. Russell, chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee. However, as
Allen W. Dulles was later to admit, because of "plausible deniability" planned covert actions were not referred to the 5412 Committee.
After the shooting both men calmly sit down.After several minutes they get up and walk away in different directions.The man in blue appeared to have a radio in his back pocket.
In frame 202 he holds the umbrella low close to his head.In frame 226 you can see he holds it high above his head.This could be a signal to the sniper teams.
